Psychology of the Individual User 
SASI Final Report
3.0  Psychology of the Individual User

In the SASI project, observations of NoteCards users have been on two levels.  First, we have examined very specific design features or design flaws of NoteCards by loosely monitoring the entire user community as well as by closely watching a few of its members carry out their tasks using the system.  The goal of these observations was to provide immediate feedback on the design of specific aspects of NoteCards.  This user community is described in Section 2 in terms of the applications its members developed.
The second level of observation has been to derive a more abstract description of the NoteCards users' tasks and the processes they use to accomplish these tasks.  The goal of this abstract description is to provide an empirical and theoretical foundation for understanding the psychology of the user and the nature of the users' tasks and how they interact during NoteCards use.  This level of empirical and theoretical understanding is critical to our ability to generalize our observations to future design decisions in NoteCards, as well as to other computer systems.
Our observations of NoteCards in use during the past year and a half have pointed to two critical issues: 1) the processes involved in the early stages of organizing large amounts of unstructured information, and 2) the problems of maintaining the context necessary to interpret information in a system which tends to homogenize (i.e., eliminate contextual cues for) information.  This section discusses an analysis of the individual user from the perspective of the first issue.
3.1  The Study
A graduate student in history from a local university was employed part-time to use the NoteCards system for a writing task.  The topic of the paper was agreed upon as one that would be interesting to a wide audience.  The length of the paper was not predetermined but the project was to be completed by the end of the summer, about seven months total time.  Over this seven months, the subject collected notes and wrote a research paper with supported argumentation on the following topic: the crisis in Europe in response to the plan to deploy American Pershing and cruise missiles.
The subject of this study began work in February of 1984.  A Xerox 1108 and/or a Xerox 1132 running Interlisp-D were available to him 24 hours/day for his task.  At first, before the NoteCards system was ready for use, he used only the Interlisp-D text editor (TEdit) for taking his notes.  He wrote his notes in one long text file and included some cross-references to bibliographic sources and related notes.  By the end of the second month a stable version of NoteCards was up and running and he moved his notes into his NoteCards file.  When we began our observations a month and a half later, the subject had collected about 200 notes which he stored in a hierarchical network of 68 FileBoxes.
Videotaped observations of the subject working on the NoteCards system were continued for over two months œ from mid June to late August.  During this period, he collected the last third of his notes in NoteCards and entered just slightly less than half of his sources into his bibliography.
Figure 3.1-1 shows a rough sketch of the time over which the subject worked on this project and the different phases of his task.  He spent the fifth and sixth months taking notes and organizing them by topics.  In the latter part of the sixth month he continued taking a few notes, but he spent most of his time reorganizing his topic hierarchy.  All of the writing of the paper occurred during the seventh month.
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Figure 3.1-1  The basic sub-tasks of the subject and the time required to complete them.
Over the early months of the project, the subject had help from the system designers and staff with bugs in the system and with learning to get around in the Interlisp-D environment.  He learned a number of skills (e.g., text and graphics editing, maintaining backup copies of files).  It is clear, however, that he brought many skills with him to this setting and employed them in completing his writing task.  For example, as an historian he understood the critical importance of knowing the source for each fact, quotation, or opinion that he collected.  He had little trouble documenting his sources, and the notion of a bibliographic organization of sources was natural to him.  He was very familiar with the standard way of citing footnotes in a paper.  He was also familiar with the topic he was writing about and so it was relatively easy for him to construct a set of semantic (i.e., topic) categories in which to organize his notes.  
3.2  Data Collection
Data for this study include the following:  
1) several open-ended interviews with the subject in which he was encouraged to discuss the topic of his paper, to comment on various aspects of the writing task itself (i.e., from both the current task and earlier tasks where he wrote without a computer), and to comment on the NoteCards functionality and interface;  
2) videotape data taken of many of the subject's work sessions during the final 1 1/2 months of work in which he was collecting notes, reorganizing topics, and writing the paper (13 sessions of 1 - 2 hrs. each);  
3) virtually all versions of the subject's NoteCards file were saved during the final 1 1/2 months of work (a total of 25 sessions);  
4) and, 1 month prior to the experimental sessions listed above, one session of pilot data of the same sort was collected on the subject.
The video picture was recorded from a terminal screen wired to carry the same image as the subject's screen.  In the note-taking and reorganization phases of the task, we also recorded a faint video image of the subject that was superimposed on film on the video image of the terminal screen.  This provided information on the subject's activities.  In the later writing phase of the task, the full screen image was recorded along with a close-up image of the current working area of the screen.  This higher resolution allowed for more accurate determination of the relationships between the information he typed into the paper and other items visible on his screen.
3.3  Phases of the Writing Task
Figure 3.1-1 shows how the subject's activities changed over time.  For the first one and 1/2 months, the subject read books and articles and recorded all of his notes in one large file.  He specified some breaks between notes and he indicated topic groupings for some of the notes.  When the Notecards system became available he spent several weeks moving, organizing, categorizing, and titling the notes he had already taken.  After this period, he spent about two more months taking notes.  Toward the end of the sixth month he began to focus on the paper he was going to write.  His notetaking slowed and he entered another period of reorganizing his notes and topics.  Immediately afterward, he began to write the paper.  A few notes were taken during the writing phase, but no reorganization occurred.  The basic phases of his writing task are shown in Figure 3.3-1. 
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Figure 3.3-1.  Phases of the writing task.
3.4  Objects Used to Accomplish the Task
The subject wrote his notes into notecards and these were organized into a topic structure.  The subject's original intention was to have a topic outline that would hold all of his notes.  The hierarchical FileBox structure was the tool provided by the implementors for this pupose.  With the browsing mechanism, he created a visual display of all the topics and subtopics.  
In addition to the hierarchy of topic FileBoxes, the subject added a FileBox titled "Bibliography." He collected a set of "source" notecards, each of which contained a bibliographic entry for the source of a collection of notes.  He organized these source cards alphabetically by author in the "Bibliography" FileBox.  A special Source link was provided by the NoteCards system in anticipation of the subject's need to easily designate the contents of one card as the source of the contents of another.  By following the Source links from a source notecard, the user is able to locate all of the notes written from a particular source.
When the subject began to write his paper, he created a FileBox he titled "Outline" to hold some notes and the first introductory paragraphs for his paper.  The Outline FileBox was later deleted and replaced by an OUTLINE card.  This one card was revised over and over during the writing phase.  It served several obvious functions: as an outline for the paper, as a working draft, and as an organized storage place for pointers to relevant notes.  Since the NoteCards system has no mechanism at this time for multiple versions of a card, the subject had only the latest version available to him when making his revisions.  He occasionally made hardcopies of his OUTLINE card.
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Figure 3.4-1  Elements of the task.
The subject also had a FileBox titled "Unfiled Cards."  This is the mechanism provided by the system for storing as yet unfiled cards, i.e., those cards not yet filed in his topic hierarchy.  Another important element in the subject's task was the top level "Contents" FileBox which was a tool box of sorts and held all of the elements of his NoteCards file that he used frequently (e.g., Bibliography FileBox, OUTLINE card, Topic Browser, and Unfiled Cards FileBox).  The "Contents" FileBox is at the top of the FileBox hierarchy and is accessible with a single mouse click from the main NoteCards menu.
The subject had other elements of the task which were not stored on the computer.  He collected his information from books and periodicals.  He also had a map of Europe on the wall of his office.
3.5  Analyses of the Phases of the Task
Notetaking and organization.  Notetaking seemed to be a less comprehensively demanding task than organization or writing and it was easily interleaved with these other activities.  Throughout the process of notetaking, the subject complained that the most difficult aspects of his work was assigning titles to the notes.  Very little notetaking occurred during the time when the subject was organizing his notes.  Several explanations for this are suggested by the subject's actions during notetaking.  When taking notes in notecards, the subject preferred to assign the topic(s) for each note at the same time he stored the note in the NoteCards file. However, when the relevant part of the topic organization was in transition because he was reorganizing, then it was more difficult for him to choose an appropriate topic.  If he postponed making a decision about the appropriate topic, then he was forced to file his note without a topic œ in his "Unfiled Cards" FileBox.  He could later refile the card, but the overhead in the extra step involved made it optimal for him to forgo notetaking until the reorganization was completed.  
Organization was a relatively demanding task.  It was only done when necessary.  Manipulating a set of unfiled notes would sometimes stimulate him to perform a minor reorganization of his topics, or at least to subdivide one topic.  With this action, it seemed he was preparing for the storage of new notes and avoiding the necessity of going back and reorganizing them later.  Once the writing of the paper was begun, there was no more reorganization of the topic structure.  
Writing.  In the writing phase, the subject reviewed the notes he had collected and he wrote text from his memory and from the notes.  First he wrote a paragraph stating the thesis and some justification for the paper.  This he titled "Introduction."  Further progress on the paper proceeded in three interleaved activities.  First he built a topic sentence outline for much of the paper.  As the final sections of the outline were written, he began to place pointers to relevant notes in the first few sections of the outline.  When most of the sections of the outline had pointers to notes, he went back to the first sections of the outline and began to "expand" the notes.  Expanding a note involved writing or rewriting text into his outline based on the content of the note.  As he expanded a note, the link icon in his outline was changed so that it displayed only the link label for the note, and the link label was changed to "footnote."  The footnote links embedded in the text of the paper were the subject's NoteCards translation of the standard footnote notation.  The links indicated a reference to a bibliographic source listed elsewhere in the NoteCards file without interfering with the flow of the text.  In addition, the link icons functioned as a marker to let him know he had already expanded the note in the text of the paper.  The footnote links provided pointers directly to the notes from which the paper was written.  During the process of expanding notes in his outline, he collected some new notes from outside sources.  He also added more notes to his outline from his topic structure.  The subject would switch from working on one part of the outline/paper to another and would pursue whichever stage of the writing activity was called for in that section.  
 
3.6  Analysis of the Organizational Structures
In an effort to understand more about the role that the topic organization of the notes played in the actual writing of the paper, we compared the way that the notes (i.e., footnotes) were organized in the paper with the way those same notes were organized in the topic categories.  At the time the study was ended, there were 75 notes footnoted in the paper (some cited more than once) and they were collected from 25 FileBoxes. 
Figure 3.6-1 shows a view of the organization of the paper that was useful in our analyses.  The text of the paper contained pointers to notes.  As the subject wrote the paper, these notes were paraphrased or quoted in the text.  The list of FOOTNOTES in Figure 3.6-1 is the set of notes linked to the paper.  They are listed in the order in which they appeared in the paper and identified with their ID number.  The smaller the ID number, the earlier the note was created in the NoteCards file.  Sometimes within a section of the paper there was more than one footnote link to the same note.  These redundant links have been left off the figure.
Almost every footnote in the paper has a bibliographic source and many of the footnotes are taken from the same source.  In Figure 3.6-1, the SOURCE for each footnote is listed on the right and is connected to the footnote with a line.  The best example of a source from which many notes were taken is number 40 (shown 3rd from the top).  It is linked to 13 different notes in the paper.  The subject has 29 notes stored in the NoteCards file that have source links to card 40, but only 13 of these were used in the paper.  
The TOPICS represent the topic FileBoxes in which the notes are stored.  As with the sources, each topic FileBox has links to many notes, only some of which appeared in the paper.  Unlike sources, a note may be linked to more than one topic FileBox.  Most of the footnotes in the paper (and in the NoteCards file) have only one topic, though some are linked to two or three topics.
The organization of notes by sources in the NoteCards file was potentially an important factor in the organization of the notes in the paper.  From each note, the subject could follow a link to the bibliographic source of that note, and from each source he could access all the notes that were taken from that source.  It seemed useful to see to what degree this natural source grouping of notes affected the subject's other working organizations.  Figure 3.6-1 suggests that the source organization does not correspond particularly well to either the way the notes were organized in the topic hierarchy or to the way they were organized in the paper.  Figure 3.6-3 shows the sources of the footnotes used in an early draft of the subject's outline for the paper.  The range and ratio of the number of sources to the number of footnotes did not vary much from the first draft of the outline to the later draft of the paper.
Figure 3.6-1  Footnotes from the final paper and links to their topic categories and bibliographic sources.  Numbers are used instead of titles for the notecards, Bibliography cards, and topic FileBoxes.  The number represent the numerical order in which each of the items were entered into the NoteCards file.
It seemed even more likely that the topic FileBox organization had some influence on the organization of the paper.  Figure 3.6-1 shows that the sections of the paper bore some correspondence to the topic organization of notes.  Only three of the topic FileBoxes contained notes used in more than one section of the paper.  On the other hand, the set of notes for any one section of the paper came from 2 to 6 different topics.  
If we consider the hierarchical organization of the topic FileBoxes, the correlation between the way the notes are organized by topics and the way they are organized in the sections of the paper appears slightly stronger.  Figure 3.6-2 shows hierarchical relationships between the topic FileBoxes.  The arrows run from the superordinate FileBox to the subordinate boxes.  If there are no footnotes stored in the superordinate box, that box is shown as an unlabled point to the left of the topic list.
Figure 3.6-2.  Footnotes from the final paper with their topic links.  Arrows indicate the parent and sibling relationships between the topic fileboxes.
Within each section of the paper, there is generally some topic relation between the notes.  Before drawing any conclusions from this, we found it useful to examine the earliest version of the paper, i.e., the outline which contained pointers to notes that were not yet "expanded" into the text of the paper.  Figure 3.6-3 shows the notes that the subject collected in the earliest version of his outline.  The footnotes shown in Figure 3.6-3 were pointers from the sections of the outline to notes in his NoteCards file that he intended to use in writing his paper.  
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Figure 3.6-3  Notes from an early version of the outline and their topic categories.  Arrows indicate the parent and sibling relationships between the topic fileboxes.
The correspondence between the organization of the notes by topic and the organization of the notes within the sections of this early outline is much stronger that that observed between the topics and the sections of the paper in Figures 3.6-1 and 3.6-2.  The strong correlation between the two organizations becomes even more evident if in the diagram we eliminate the multiple links between the notes having more than one topic, if we include markers showing the subsections of his outline, and if we show the parent and sibling relations between the topics as is shown in Figure 3.6-4.  It seems reasonable to suspect that the topic organization had some influence on the organization of the notes in the initial outline for the paper.  However, without more extensive examination of the videotape data, it is impossible to determine to what extent the topic structure affected the writing of the paper.  Further evaluation is complicated by the fact that during the writing phase the subject was recursively cycling through the activities of expanding the outline, adding notes, translating notes into text, and smoothing the text.  

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Figure 3.6-4  Notes from an early version of the outline and the topic links.  If a note is linked to more than one topic, the link to the second topic has been removed.  Subsections of the outline are indicated.
If the topic organization is related to the structure of the outline, what was the purpose of the subject's reorganization of the topic structure that occurred immediately before he began writing the paper.  Did he undertake the topic reorganization in an effort to make the topic structure match his concept of how the paper should be organized?  The subject suggested in one of the interviews that he performed the reorganization in an effort to make the topics "look right." We examined the notes that were in the early verson of the outline and in final versions of the paper and compared them with the set of notes and topic FileBoxes that had been involved in the reorganization.  Only the first two sections of the paper contained notes which were linked to topics that had been moved in the reorganization.  
The evidence suggests that the subject's organization of notes by topic was different from the organization of the notes in the paper.  He did not work to maintain consistency between the two.  The longer he worked on the paper, the more the paper organization differed the topic organization.  We can only guess whether he was incapable of making his topic organization match his intended paper organization or whether it was not worth the effort to maintain the consistency.  In either case, it seems clear that the subject was capable of working with more than one organization imposed on his notes. (LIST ((PAGE NIL NIL (0 0 612 792) ((FOLIO NIL (PARALOOKS (QUAD CENTERED) CHARLOOKS (FAMILY NIL OVERLINE OFF STRIKEOUT OFF UNDERLINE OFF SLOPE REGULAR WEIGHT MEDIUM)) (270 36 72 36) NIL) (HEADING NIL (HEADINGTYPE DOCUMENT) (72 756 468 36) NIL) (HEADING NIL (HEADINGTYPE CHAPTER) (72 756 468 36) NIL) (TEXT NIL NIL (72 72 468 648) NIL))) (PAGE NIL NIL (0 0 612 792) ((FOLIO NIL (PARALOOKS (QUAD CENTERED) CHARLOOKS (FAMILY NIL OVERLINE OFF STRIKEOUT OFF UNDERLINE OFF SLOPE REGULAR WEIGHT MEDIUM)) (270 36 72 36) NIL) (HEADING NIL (HEADINGTYPE DOCUMENT) (72 756 468 36) NIL) (HEADING NIL (HEADINGTYPE CHAPTER) (72 756 468 36) NIL) (TEXT NIL NIL (72 72 468 648) NIL))) (PAGE NIL NIL (0 0 612 792) ((FOLIO NIL (PARALOOKS (QUAD CENTERED) CHARLOOKS (FAMILY NIL OVERLINE OFF STRIKEOUT OFF UNDERLINE OFF SLOPE REGULAR WEIGHT MEDIUM)) (270 36 72 36) NIL) (HEADING NIL (HEADINGTYPE DOCUMENT) (72 756 468 36) NIL) (HEADING NIL (HEADINGTYPE CHAPTER) (72 756 468 36) NIL) (TEXT NIL NIL (72 72 468 648) NIL)))))HH
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