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(Using Threads in Interactive Systems: A Case Study ) show
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(Carl Hauser, Christian Jacobi, Marvin Theimer, Brent Welch and Mark Weiser) show
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(Xerox PARC) show
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(Correspondence should be addressed to:) show
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(1. Introduction ) show
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font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(adds its calling thread to the CV's wait queue. ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(NOTIFY) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( causes a single thread that is waiting on the) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
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font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(CV's wait queue to become runnable--) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(exactly one waiter wakens) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( behavior. \050Note that some thread) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
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font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(packages define their analog of ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(NOTIFY) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( to have ) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 3 {font9 setfont} put
(at least one waiter wakens) 3 buf
opsaft 3 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 4 {font0 setfont} put
( behavior [Birrell91].\051) 4 buf
opsaft 4 null put
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gsave
font10 setfont
opsbef 0 {font10 setfont} put
(BROADCAST) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 1 {font0 setfont} put
( causes all threads that are waiting on the CV to become runnable. In either case,) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
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gsave
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font0 setfont
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(4) show
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font0 setfont
(threads must compete for the monitor's mutex before reentering the monitor.) show
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font0 setfont
(Unlike the monitors originally described by Hoare [Hoare74], the Mesa thread model does not) justify
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opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(guarantee that the condition associated with a CV is satisfied when a ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(WAIT) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( completes. If) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
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font10 setfont
opsbef 0 {font10 setfont} put
(BROADCAST) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font0 setfont
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( is used, for example, a different thread might acquire the monitor lock first and change) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
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(the state of the program. Therefore a thread is responsible for rechecking the condition after each) justify
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gsave
font10 setfont
opsbef 0 {font10 setfont} put
(WAIT) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 1 {font0 setfont} put
(. Thus, the prototypical use of ) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 2 {font10 setfont} put
(WAIT) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 3 {font0 setfont} put
( is inside a ) 3 buf
opsaft 3 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 4 {font10 setfont} put
(WHILE) 4 buf
opsaft 4 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 5 {font0 setfont} put
( loop that checks the condition, ) 5 buf
opsaft 5 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 6 {font9 setfont} put
(not) 6 buf
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font0 setfont
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( inside) 7 buf
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font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(an ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(IF) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( statement that would only check the condition once. Programs that obey the \042) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 3 {font10 setfont} put
(WAIT) 3 buf
opsaft 3 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 4 {font0 setfont} put
( only in a) 4 buf
opsaft 4 null put
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font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(loop\042 convention are insensitve to whether ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(NOTIFY) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( has ) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 3 {font9 setfont} put
( at least one waiter wakens) 3 buf
opsaft 3 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 4 {font0 setfont} put
( behavior or) 4 buf
opsaft 4 null put
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opsbef 0 {font9 setfont} put
(exactly one waiter wakens ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 1 {font0 setfont} put
(behavior as described above. Indeed, under this convention ) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font10 setfont
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(BROADCAST) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
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font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(can be substituted for ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(NOTIFY) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( without affecting program correctness, so ) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 3 {font10 setfont} put
(NOTIFY) 3 buf
opsaft 3 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 4 {font0 setfont} put
( is just a) 4 buf
opsaft 4 null put
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grestore
82.3075 586.0179 moveto
font0 setfont
(performance hint. ) show
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gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(Threads have ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(priorities) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( that affect the scheduler. The scheduler runs the highest priority runnable) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
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grestore
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font0 setfont
(thread and if there are several runnable threads at the highest priority then round-robin is used) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(among them. If a system event causes a higher priority thread to become runnable, the scheduler) justify
grestore
82.3075 530.439 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(will ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(preempt) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( the currently running thread, even if it holds monitor locks. There are 7 priorities in) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
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grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(all, with the default being the middle priority \0504\051. Typically lower priority is used for long running,) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(background work, while higher priority is used for threads associated with devices or aspects of the) justify
grestore
82.3075 494.3039 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(user interface, keeping the system responsive for interactive work. A thread's initial priority is set) justify
grestore
82.3075 482.259 moveto
font0 setfont
(when it is created. It can change its own priority.) show
82.3075 462.8148 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(The timeslice interval and the CV timeout granularity in the current implementation are each 50) justify
grestore
82.3075 450.7699 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(milliseconds. The scheduler runs at least that often, but also runs each time a thread blocks on a) justify
grestore
82.3075 438.725 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(mutex, waits on a CV, or calls the ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(YIELD ) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
(primitive. The only purpose of the ) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 3 {font10 setfont} put
(YIELD) 3 buf
opsaft 3 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 4 {font0 setfont} put
( primitive is to) 4 buf
opsaft 4 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
82.3075 426.6797 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(cause the scheduler to run \050but see discussion later of YieldButNotToMe\051. The scheduler takes less) justify
grestore
82.3075 414.635 moveto
font0 setfont
(than 50 microseconds to switch between threads on a Sparcstation-2.) show
72.26999 364.6194 moveto
font8 setfont
(3. Dynamic thread behavior) show
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gsave
font0 setfont
(Section 3.1 describes the large-scale behavior of our thread systems: how many threads are there,) justify
grestore
82.3075 326.649 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(how often are threads created and destroyed, how often are monitor locks and condition variables) justify
grestore
82.3075 314.604 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(used. It is intended to give the reader an intuitive feel for the physical and temporal scale of the) justify
grestore
82.3075 302.5588 moveto
font0 setfont
(system.) show
82.3075 283.1148 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Section 3.2 provides a microscopic look at a thread misbehavior. It is intended to introduce the) justify
grestore
82.3075 271.0698 moveto
font0 setfont
(notion of microscopic examination and to provide an example for discussion later in the paper. ) show
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font1 setfont
(3.1 Macro-behavior) show
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/colwidth 446.907 def
gsave
font0 setfont
(One of the original motivations for our work was a desire to understand the dynamic behavior of) justify
grestore
92.345 207.1739 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(user-level threads. For this purpose, we constructed an instrumented version of PCR that) justify
grestore
92.345 195.129 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(measured the number of threads in the system, thread lifetimes, the run length distribution of) justify
grestore
92.345 183.084 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(threads and the rate at which monitor locks and condition variables are used. Analysis of the) justify
grestore
92.345 171.0389 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(data obtained from this instrumented system led to the realization that there were a number of) justify
grestore
92.345 158.9939 moveto
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font0 setfont
(consistent patterns of thread usage, which led to the static analysis on which this paper is) justify
grestore
92.345 146.949 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(focused. To give the reader some background and context for this static analysis, we present a) justify
grestore
92.345 134.904 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(summary of our dynamic data below. This data is based on a set of benchmarks intended to be) justify
grestore
92.345 122.859 moveto
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font0 setfont
(typical of user activity, including compilation, formatting a document into a page description) justify
grestore
92.345 110.814 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(language \050like Postscript\051, previewing pages described by a page description language and user) justify
grestore
92.345 98.76898 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(interface tasks \050keyboarding, mousing and scrolling windows\051. All data was taken on a) justify
grestore
92.345 86.724 moveto
font0 setfont
(Sparcstation-2 running SunOS-4.1.3.) show
grestore
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% end page 4
showpage
%%page 5
gsave
2834.646 2834.646 scale
gsave
0.0254 dup matrix scale concat
0.013837 dup matrix scale concat
font0 setfont
558.5476 746.79 moveto
(5) show
92.345 713.8666 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Looking at the dynamic thread behavior, we observed several different classes of threads. There) justify
grestore
92.345 701.8220 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(were ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(eternal) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( threads that repeatedly waited on a condition variable and then ran briefly before) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(waiting again. There were ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(worker) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( threads that were forked to perform some activity, such as) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 677.7321 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(formatting a document. Finally, there were short-lived ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(transient) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( threads that were forked by) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 665.687 moveto
font0 setfont
(some long-lived thread, would run for a relatively short while and then exit.) show
92.345 644.9238 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(A Cedar or GVX world uses a moderate number of threads. Consider Cedar first: an idle Cedar) justify
grestore
92.345 632.8788 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(system has about 35 eternal threads running in it and forks a transient thread once a second on) justify
grestore
92.345 620.8338 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(average. Keyboard activity can cause up to 5 thread forks per second, although most other user-) justify
grestore
92.345 608.7887 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(interface activity causes much smaller increases in thread forking rates. While one of our) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(benchmark applications \050document formatting\051 employed large numbers of transient threads) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(\050forking 3.6 threads/sec.\051, the other two compute-intensive applications we examined caused) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(thread-forking activity to ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(decrease) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( by more than a factor of 3. In all our benchmarks, the) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 560.6087 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(maximum number of threads concurrently existing in the system never exceeded 41, although) justify
grestore
92.345 548.564 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(users employ two to three times this many in everyday work. Transient threads are by far the) justify
grestore
92.345 536.519 moveto
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(most numerous resulting in an average lifetime for non-eternal threads that is well under 1) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(second.) show
92.345 503.7106 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(An idle GVX world exhibits noticeably different behavior than just described. An idle system) justify
grestore
92.345 491.6656 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(contains 22 eternal threads and forks no additional threads. In fact, no additional threads are) justify
grestore
92.345 479.6207 moveto
font0 setfont
(forked for any user interface activity, be it keyboard, mouse, or windowing activity.) show
92.345 458.8574 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(The Appendix contains a brief description of each eternal thread seen in the Cedar and GVX) justify
grestore
92.345 446.8124 moveto
font0 setfont
(benchmarks.) show
203.1544 426.0492 moveto
font1 setfont
(Table 1: Forking and thread-switching rates) show
92.345 405.2857 moveto
/Times-Bold findfont 8.029999 scalefont
/font11 exch def
font11 setfont
0.0 4.015 rmoveto
(Cedar) show
0.0 -4.015 rmoveto
font10 setfont
0.0 4.015 rmoveto
30.77533 0.0 rmoveto
0.0 -4.015 rmoveto
0.0 4.015 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
0.0 -4.015 rmoveto
0.0 4.015 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
0.0 -4.015 rmoveto
font11 setfont
0.0 4.015 rmoveto
(Forks/sec) show
0.0 -4.015 rmoveto
font10 setfont
0.0 4.015 rmoveto
16.49962 0.0 rmoveto
0.0 -4.015 rmoveto
font11 setfont
0.0 4.015 rmoveto
(Thread Switches/sec) show
0.0 -4.015 rmoveto
font0 setfont
28.09135 0.0 rmoveto
92.345 393.2408 moveto
font1 setfont
(Idle Cedar) show
font0 setfont
57.98253 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 0.9) show
32.89484 0.0 rmoveto
( 132) show
92.345 381.1956 moveto
font1 setfont
(Keyboard input) show
font0 setfont
31.2156 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 5.0) show
32.89484 0.0 rmoveto
( 269) show
92.345 369.1507 moveto
font1 setfont
(Mouse movement) show
font0 setfont
22.85133 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 1.0) show
32.89484 0.0 rmoveto
( 191) show
92.345 357.1058 moveto
font1 setfont
(Window scrolling) show
font0 setfont
22.85238 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 0.7) show
32.89484 0.0 rmoveto
( 172) show
92.345 345.0606 moveto
font1 setfont
(Document formatting) show
font0 setfont
57.97753 0.0 rmoveto
( 3.6) show
32.89484 0.0 rmoveto
( 171) show
92.345 333.0156 moveto
font1 setfont
(Document previewing) show
font0 setfont
55.18812 0.0 rmoveto
( 1.6) show
32.89484 0.0 rmoveto
( 222) show
92.345 320.9706 moveto
font1 setfont
(Make program) show
font0 setfont
36.23532 0.0 rmoveto
( ) show
53.5279 0.0 rmoveto
( 0.3) show
32.89484 0.0 rmoveto
( 170) show
92.345 308.9257 moveto
font1 setfont
(Compile) show
font0 setfont
13.37796 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 0.3) show
32.89484 0.0 rmoveto
( 135) show
92.345 296.8806 moveto
92.345 284.8356 moveto
font11 setfont
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(GVX) show
0.0 -4.015 rmoveto
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font1 setfont
(Idle GVX) show
font0 setfont
8.917311 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 0) show
41.26008 0.0 rmoveto
( 33) show
92.345 260.7456 moveto
font1 setfont
(Keyboard input) show
font0 setfont
31.2156 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 0) show
41.26008 0.0 rmoveto
( 60) show
92.345 248.7007 moveto
font1 setfont
(Mouse movement) show
font0 setfont
22.85133 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 0) show
41.26008 0.0 rmoveto
( 34) show
92.345 236.6556 moveto
font1 setfont
(Window scrolling) show
font0 setfont
22.85238 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
( 0) show
41.26008 0.0 rmoveto
( 43) show
92.345 215.8923 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(The rate at which a Cedar system switches among running threads varies from 130/sec. for an) justify
grestore
92.345 203.8474 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(idle system to around 270/sec for a system experiencing heavy keyboard/mouse input activity.) justify
grestore
92.345 191.8023 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Thread execution intervals \050the lengths of time between thread switches\051 exhibit a peak at about) justify
grestore
92.345 179.7574 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(3 milliseconds, with about 75% of all execution intervals being between 0 and 5 milliseconds in) justify
grestore
92.345 167.7123 moveto
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font0 setfont
(length. This is due to the very short execution intervals of most eternal and transient threads. A) justify
grestore
92.345 155.6674 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(second peak is around 45 milliseconds, which is related to the PCR time-slice period, which is 50) justify
grestore
92.345 143.6224 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(milliseconds. Transient and eternal thread activity steals the first part of a timeslice with the) justify
grestore
92.345 131.5774 moveto
font0 setfont
(remainder going to worker threads.) show
92.345 110.8141 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(While most execution intervals are short, longer execution intervals account for most of the total) justify
grestore
92.345 98.76912 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(execution time in our systems. Between 20% and 50% of the total execution time during any) justify
grestore
92.345 86.72413 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(period is accumulated by threads running for periods of 45 to 50 milliseconds. We also examined) justify
grestore
grestore
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gsave
2834.646 2834.646 scale
gsave
0.0254 dup matrix scale concat
0.013837 dup matrix scale concat
font0 setfont
558.5476 746.79 moveto
(6) show
92.345 713.8666 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(the total execution time contribution as a function of thread priority. Only two patterns were) justify
grestore
92.345 701.8220 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(evident: of the 7 available priority levels one wasn't used at all, and user interface activity) justify
grestore
92.345 689.7769 moveto
font0 setfont
(tended to use higher priorities for its threads than did user-initiated tasks such as compiling.) show
92.345 671.7097 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(GVX switches among threads at a decidely lower rate: an idle system switches only 33 times per) justify
grestore
92.345 659.6645 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(second, while heavy keyboard activity will drive the rate up to 60/sec. The same bi-modal) justify
grestore
92.345 647.6196 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(distribution of execution intervals is exhibited as in Cedar: between 50% and 70% of all execution) justify
grestore
92.345 635.5745 moveto
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font0 setfont
(intervals are between 0 and 5 milliseconds in length with a second peak around 45 milliseconds.) justify
grestore
92.345 623.5294 moveto
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font0 setfont
(Between 30% and 80% of the total execution time during any period is accumulated by threads) justify
grestore
92.345 611.4845 moveto
font0 setfont
(running for periods of 45 to 50 milliseconds. ) show
92.345 593.417 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(GVX's use of thread priorities was noticeably different than Cedar's. While Cedar's core of long-) justify
grestore
92.345 581.372 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(lived threads are relatively evenly distributed over the four \042standard\042 priority values of 1 to 4,) justify
grestore
92.345 569.327 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(GVX sets almost all of its threads to priority level 3; using the lower two priority levels only for a) justify
grestore
92.345 557.282 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(few background helper tasks. Two of the five low-priority threads in fact never actually ran) justify
grestore
92.345 545.2371 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(during our experiments. As with Cedar, one of the 7 priority levels is never used. However, while) justify
grestore
92.345 533.1924 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Cedar uses level 7 for interrupt handling and doesn't use level 5, GVX does the opposite. In both) justify
grestore
92.345 521.147 moveto
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font0 setfont
(systems, priority level 6 gets used by the system daemon that does proportional scheduling.) justify
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font0 setfont
(Cedar also uses level 6 for its garbage collection daemon.) show
92.345 491.0347 moveto
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(One interesting behavior that our Cedar thread data exhibited was a variety of different forking) justify
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92.345 478.9896 moveto
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92.345 466.9444 moveto
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(thread, in turn, forks another transient thread. Keyboard activity causes a transient thread to be) justify
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92.345 454.8996 moveto
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(forked by the command-shell thread for every keystroke. On the other hand, simply moving the) justify
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92.345 442.8546 moveto
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(window\051 causes no additional forking activity. \050However, both keyboard activity and mouse) justify
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(motion cause significant increases in activity by eternal threads.\051 Scrolling a text window 10) justify
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92.345 406.7195 moveto
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(times causes 3 transient threads to be forked, one of which is the child of one of the other) justify
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92.345 394.6744 moveto
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(transients.) show
92.345 376.6072 moveto
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(Document formatting causes a great number of transient threads to be forked by the main) justify
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92.345 364.562 moveto
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(formatting worker thread, whereas compilation and document previewing cause a moderate) justify
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92.345 340.4719 moveto
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(completion, each of the document formatter's transient threads fork one or more additional) justify
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92.345 316.3818 moveto
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(none of our benchmarks exhibited forking generations greater than 2. That is, every transient) justify
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(thread was either the child or grandchild of some worker or long-lived thread.) show
92.345 286.2695 moveto
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(Checking whether a program needs recompiling \050the Make program\051 does not cause any threads) justify
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(to be forked \050the command-shell thread gets used as the main worker thread\051, except for garbage) justify
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(collection and finalization of collected data objects. Each of these activities causes a moderate) justify
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(number of first-generation transient threads to be forked.) show
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(7) show
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(Table 2: Wait-CV and monitor entry rates) show
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(Cedar) show
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font10 setfont
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(% of CV that timeout ML-enters/sec) show
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font0 setfont
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92.345 681.6129 moveto
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font0 setfont
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( 121) show
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55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
(82%) show
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( 414) show
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( 185) show
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55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
(48%) show
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(2557) show
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( 163) show
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( ) show
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(58%) show
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(1025) show
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( 115) show
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( ) show
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(69%) show
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(2032) show
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( ) show
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(72%) show
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(2739) show
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( ) show
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(56%) show
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(1335) show
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font1 setfont
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font0 setfont
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( 158) show
21.18509 0.0 rmoveto
( ) show
49.06722 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
(61%) show
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(2218) show
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( 119) show
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( ) show
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(82%) show
36.24035 0.0 rmoveto
(1365) show
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92.345 573.2083 moveto
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( 32) show
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( ) show
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(99%) show
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( 366) show
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( 38) show
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( ) show
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(42%) show
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(1436) show
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font0 setfont
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( 33) show
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( ) show
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(96%) show
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( 410) show
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( 25) show
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( ) show
46.83691 0.0 rmoveto
55.75825 0.0 rmoveto
(61%) show
36.24035 0.0 rmoveto
( 691) show
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(The rate at which locking and condition variable primitives are used is another measure of) justify
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92.345 492.7747 moveto
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(thread activity. Table 2 shows the rates for each benchmark. The rate of waiting on CVs in Cedar) justify
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92.345 480.7297 moveto
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(ranged from 115/second to 185/second, with 50% to 80% of these waits timing out rather than) justify
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(receiving a wakeup notification. Monitors are entered much more frequently, reflecting their use) justify
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92.345 456.6396 moveto
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(to protect data structures \050especially in reusable library packages\051. Entry rates varied from) justify
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(400/second for an idle system to 2500/sec for a system experiencing heavy keyboard activity to) justify
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92.345 432.5494 moveto
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(2700/second for document formatting. Contention was low, however, occuring on 0.01% to 0.1% of) justify
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92.345 420.5045 moveto
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(all entries to monitors.) show
92.345 400.2957 moveto
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font0 setfont
(For GVX, the rate of waiting on CVs ranged from 32/second to 38/second, with 42% to 99% of) justify
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92.345 388.2507 moveto
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font0 setfont
(these waits timing out rather than receiving a wakeup notification. Monitors are entered at rates) justify
grestore
92.345 376.2056 moveto
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font0 setfont
(between 366/sec and 1436/sec. Interestingly, contention for monitor locks was sometimes) justify
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92.345 364.1607 moveto
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font0 setfont
(significantly higher in GVX than in Cedar, occuring 0.4% of the time when scrolling a window) justify
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92.345 352.1156 moveto
font0 setfont
(and 0.2% of the time when heavy keyboard traffic was present.) show
172.7634 331.9068 moveto
font1 setfont
(Table 3: Number of different CVs and monitor locks used) show
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font10 setfont
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(# MLs) show
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92.345 299.6531 moveto
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(Idle Cedar) show
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( 22) show
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( 554) show
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( 32) show
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( 918) show
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( 26) show
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( 734) show
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( 30) show
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( 797) show
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( 46) show
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(1060) show
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( 32) show
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( 938) show
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font1 setfont
(Make program) show
font0 setfont
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( 24) show
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(1296) show
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font1 setfont
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( 36) show
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(2900) show
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font11 setfont
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(GVX) show
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( 5) show
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( 48) show
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( 7) show
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( 204) show
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font1 setfont
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font0 setfont
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( 5) show
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( 52) show
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(Window scrolling) show
font0 setfont
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( 6) show
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( 209) show
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gsave
font0 setfont
(Typically, most of the monitor/condition variable traffic is observed in about 10 to 15 different) justify
grestore
92.345 110.8142 moveto
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font0 setfont
(threads, with the worker thread of a benchmark activity dominating the numbers. The other) justify
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92.345 98.76922 moveto
gsave
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opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(active threads exhibit approximately equal traffic. The number of ) 0 buf
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font9 setfont
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(during the benchmarks varies from 500 to 3000 as shown in Table 3. In contrast, only about 20 to) justify
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(8) show
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font0 setfont
(50 different condition variables are waited for in the course of the benchmarks. GVX uses fewer) justify
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font0 setfont
(monitors and CVs. ) show
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font1 setfont
(3.2 Micro-behavior) show
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font0 setfont
(The dynamic information described in the previous section is not fully satisfying, because it fails) justify
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92.345 620.7188 moveto
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font0 setfont
(to show details of individual threads, and is not sufficient to understand the behaviors we) justify
grestore
92.345 608.6739 moveto
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(experienced in our large systems. For instance, our systems had subtle problems: sometimes less) justify
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92.345 596.629 moveto
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(performance than we expected, sometimes large amounts of idle time in what should have been a) justify
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92.345 584.584 moveto
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(compute-bound process, sometimes rare lockups of the system. For years none of these were) justify
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(frequent or annoying enough to warrant urgent attention. But eventually we felt we needed to) justify
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(understand them. The problems were not easily amenable to discovery via conventional) justify
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92.345 548.449 moveto
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(debugging or profiling methods \050which we tried\051 or dynamic statistics. We needed new tools that) justify
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92.345 536.4042 moveto
font0 setfont
(could show us detailed scheduling and process interaction.) show
92.345 510.5075 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(When we built these tools, we found a fascinating world of microscopic thread behavior had) justify
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92.345 498.4625 moveto
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(opened up to us. We think that micro-visualization tools for understanding operating systems) justify
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92.345 486.4174 moveto
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font0 setfont
(are underutilized and could be a source of considerable insight. In this section we illustrate some) justify
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92.345 474.3724 moveto
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font0 setfont
(of this world through one of the examples that led us to look for the thread paradigms described) justify
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92.345 462.3272 moveto
font0 setfont
(later in this paper.) show
92.345 436.4305 moveto
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font0 setfont
(Good X window system performance when painting large regions with many requests requires) justify
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92.345 424.3857 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(batching and merging overlapping requests. Good interactive performance, such as keystroke) justify
grestore
92.345 412.3404 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(echoing, requires that paint requests be sent to the server with very little delay. In the fall of) justify
grestore
92.345 400.2954 moveto
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font0 setfont
(1992 Cedar was painting large regions too slowly and we did not know why. We saw more) justify
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92.345 388.2506 moveto
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font0 setfont
(frequent X communication than we expected, even though we had a batching mechanism in) justify
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92.345 376.2055 moveto
font0 setfont
(place. What was going wrong? The answer is easy to see and explain with the proper tools.) show
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font9 setfont
(3.2.1 Example of micro-behavior visualization) show
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/colwidth 436.8696 def
gsave
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(Figure 1 shows 100 milliseconds of micro-behavior. It focuses on two Unix processes, one of) justify
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102.3825 295.1026 moveto
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(which is running two independent threads inside itself. The first Unix process is the X server.) justify
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gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(The other one is a Cedar ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
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( \050VP\051, which runs the Portable Common Runtime) 2 buf
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(\050PCR\051, and so can be assigned to run any number of threads. For our example, we focus on two) justify
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font0 setfont
(of those threads: a worker thread producing an image and an I/O thread that is buffering the) justify
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102.3825 246.9225 moveto
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font0 setfont
(image commands to the X server. \050The I/O thread is an example of what we will call in the next) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(section a \042slack process\042\051.) show
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gsave
font0 setfont
(In Figure 1 the top two horizontal lines represent the Unix processes, the two at the bottom) justify
grestore
102.3825 196.9358 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(represent the threads running within the second Unix process. Many other Unix processes and) justify
grestore
102.3825 184.8909 moveto
font0 setfont
(Cedar threads running at the same time are not shown.) show
102.3825 158.9941 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Let's look first at the two Unix processes. Where they show a slim horizontal grey line, they are) justify
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102.3825 146.9492 moveto
gsave
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(idle, unscheduled by the Unix kernel. Where they show a wider red horizontal line, they have) justify
grestore
102.3825 134.9041 moveto
gsave
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(actually acquired a CPU. When they have a CPU, they may cause kernel activity, shown as) justify
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102.3825 122.8592 moveto
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(short vertical strokes. For this figure we were interested in possible overhead caused by system) justify
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102.3825 110.8141 moveto
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(calls and page faults, so only those kernel events are shown, page faults in red, system calls in) justify
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(blue. Figure 1 shows that the X window server acquired and lost the CPU eleven times in the) justify
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(100 milliseconds; the VP ten times.) show
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( ) show
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(This is the X window system) justify
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(server Unix process.) show
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(This is the PCR virtual processor) justify
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(\050VP\051 Unix process that is running) justify
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grestore
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(X) show
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gsave
font12 setfont
0.0 setgray
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(VP) show
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gsave
font12 setfont
0.0 setgray
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(image) show
grestore
gsave
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0.0 setgray
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(buffer) show
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gsave
gsave
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/Times-Roman findfont 8.029999 scalefont
/font16 exch def
font16 setfont
(Note: Our data collector reports \042unknown state\042 for processes) justify
grestore
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gsave
font16 setfont
(at the beginning of a capture interval. For clarity we added by) justify
grestore
-13.62074 403.9094 moveto
gsave
font16 setfont
(hand the state color in two places: the first red \042running\042) justify
grestore
-13.62074 393.8718 moveto
font16 setfont
(region in VP, and the pink \042ready-to-run\042 region in image.) show
grestore
grestore
gsave
font15 setfont
0.0 setgray
20.28 dup matrix scale 90.0 matrix rotate 462.0180 -44.64196 matrix translate matrix concatmatrix matrix concatmatrix concat
0.0 0.0 moveto
(example of micro-visualization) show
grestore
gsave
font15 setfont
0.0 setgray
10.0 dup matrix scale 90.0 matrix rotate 336.5581 167.7614 matrix translate matrix concatmatrix matrix concatmatrix concat
0.0 0.0 moveto
(\050scale: 15mm = approx. 10 milliseconds\051) show
grestore
grestore
grestore
grestore
grestore
grestore
% end page 9
showpage
%%page 10
gsave
2834.646 2834.646 scale
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0.0254 dup matrix scale concat
0.013837 dup matrix scale concat
font0 setfont
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(10) show
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font0 setfont
(Now look at the two threads, the third and fourth lines in figure 1. Again a slim grey line shows) justify
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(they are idle. A broader pink line indicates the thread is ready to run. As with the Unix) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(processes, a broad red area shows that the thread has actually acquired a virtual processor.) justify
grestore
102.3825 677.7321 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Within the threads, again vertical strokes indicate \042kernel\042 activity, in this case requests to) justify
grestore
102.3825 665.687 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(the underlying thread mechanism running in the VP. Long vertical strokes from thread-to-) justify
grestore
102.3825 653.642 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(thread indicate inter-thread communication, in this case notification via a condition variable) justify
grestore
102.3825 641.597 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(that a thread should wake up. The sender of the communication has a dot at the beginning of) justify
grestore
102.3825 629.552 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(the stroke. Short yellow strokes indicate a ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(YIELD) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( call, in which a thread offers to voluntarily) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(give up the processor to anyone who may want it. Although PCR has a pre-emptive scheduler) justify
grestore
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(Finally, notice the relationship between the red areas in the VP, meaning it has acquired a real) justify
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(figure 1.) show
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(the monitor lock. \050See Section 6.1\051 When the image thread leaves the monitor \050indicated by the) justify
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font10 setfont
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(YIELD) 1 buf
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mixedjustify
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(X server, instead offering to give up the processor to any other thread that desires it. In this) justify
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% end page 10
showpage
%%page 11
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(priority than the buffer thread \050deduced from the figure and confirmed in the source code\051. So) justify
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(in this case the ) show
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(YIELD) show
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(As can be seen in microcosm in Figure 1a, and repeatedly in Figure 1, this failure to yield) justify
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(means that every time the image thread wakes up and signals the buffer thread, the buffer) justify
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gsave
font0 setfont
(thread runs and wakes up the X server. The failure to merge overlapping requests and the) justify
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(frequent thread and process switches are costly in performance.) show
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font0 setfont
(We will return to this problem in Section 5.2.) show
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font8 setfont
(4. Thread paradigms ) show
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gsave
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(Birrell provides a good introduction to some of the basic paradigms for thread use [Birrell91]. Here) justify
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font0 setfont
(we go further into more advanced paradigms, their necessity and frequency in practice and the) justify
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(problems of performance and correctness entailed by these advanced usages.) show
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gsave
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(Birrell suggests that forking a new thread is useful in several situations: to exploit concurrency on) justify
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(a multiprocessor \050including waiting for I/O, where one processor is the I/O device\051; to satisfy a) justify
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(human user by making progress on several tasks at once; to provide network service to multiple) justify
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(clients simultaneously; and to defer work to a less busy time [Birrell91, p. 109].) show
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(We examined about 650 different code fragments that create threads. We gradually developed a) justify
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(collection of categories that we could use to explain how thread uses were similar to one another) justify
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(and how they differed. Our final list of categories is:) show
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font0 setfont
(- defer work \050same as Birrell's\051) show
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(- pumps \050components of Birrell's pipelines. He describes them for exploiting) justify
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(multiprocessing, but we saw them mostly used for structuring.\051) show
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(- slack processes, a kind of specialized pump \050new\051) show
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gsave
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(- sleepers and one-shots \050common uses probably omitted by Birrell because synchronization) justify
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(problems in them are rare\051) show
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(- deadlock avoiders \050new\051) show
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(- task rejuvenation \050new\051) show
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font0 setfont
(- serializers, another kind of specialized pump \050new\051) show
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font0 setfont
(- concurrency exploiters \050same as Birrell's\051) show
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gsave
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(- encapsulated forks, which are forks in packages that capture certain paradigms and whose) justify
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(uses are themselves counted in the other categories.) show
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/colwidth 456.9444 def
gsave
font0 setfont
(These static categories complement the thread lifetime characterization in Section 3.1. The eternal) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(threads tend to be sleepers, pumps and serializers with nothing to do. Worker threads are often) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(work deferrers and transient threads are often deadlock avoiders. But the reader is cautioned that) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(the static paradigm can't be predicted from the dynamic lifetime. ) show
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font0 setfont
( ) show
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font1 setfont
(4.1 Defer work) show
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/colwidth 446.907 def
gsave
font0 setfont
(Deferring work is the single most common use of forking in these systems. A procedure can often) justify
grestore
grestore
grestore
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%%page 12
gsave
2834.646 2834.646 scale
gsave
0.0254 dup matrix scale concat
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font0 setfont
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(12) show
92.345 713.8666 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(reduce the latency seen by its clients by forking a thread to do work not required for the) justify
grestore
92.345 701.8220 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(procedure's return value. Sometimes work can be deferred to times when the system is under less) justify
grestore
92.345 689.7769 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(load [Birrell91]. Cedar practice has been to introduce work deferrers freely as the opportunity to) justify
grestore
92.345 677.7321 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(use them is noticed. Many commands fork an activity whose results will be reported in a separate) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(window: control in the originating thread returns immediately to the user, an example of latency) justify
grestore
92.345 653.642 moveto
font0 setfont
(reduction for the human client. Some examples of work deferrers are:) show
132.495 639.5898 moveto
font0 setfont
(- forking to print a document) show
132.495 625.537 moveto
font0 setfont
(- forking to send a mail message) show
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font0 setfont
(- forking to create a new window) show
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font0 setfont
(- forking to update the contents of a window) show
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gsave
font0 setfont
(Some threads are themselves so critical to system responsiveness that they fork to defer almost) justify
grestore
92.345 567.3194 moveto
gsave
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(any work at all beyond noticing what work needs to be done. These critical threads play the role) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(of interrupt handlers. Forking the real work allows it to be done in a lower priority thread and) justify
grestore
92.345 543.2295 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(frees the critical thread to respond to the next event. The keyboard-and-mouse watching) justify
grestore
92.345 531.1846 moveto
font0 setfont
(process, called the Notifier, is such a critical, high priority thread in both Cedar and GVX.) show
82.3075 507.0946 moveto
font1 setfont
(4.2 Pumps ) show
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gsave
font0 setfont
(Pumps are components of pipelines. They pick up input from one place, possibly transform it in) justify
grestore
92.345 470.9596 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(some way and produce it as output someplace else.) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont 0.0 4.015 rmoveto} put
(1) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {0.0 -4.015 rmoveto font0 setfont} put
( Bounded buffers and external devices are) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 458.9146 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(two common sources and sinks. The former occur in several implementations in our systems for) justify
grestore
92.345 446.8696 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(connecting threads together, while the latter are accessed with system calls \050read, write\051 and) justify
grestore
92.345 434.8246 moveto
font0 setfont
(shared memory \050raw screen IO and memory shared with an external X server\051. ) show
92.345 416.7571 moveto
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font0 setfont
(Though Birrell suggests creating pipelines to exploit parallelism on a multiprocessor, we find) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(them most commonly used in our systems as a programming convenience, another reflection of) justify
grestore
92.345 392.667 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(the uniprocessor heritage of the systems. This is also their primary use in the well-known Unix) justify
grestore
92.345 380.6222 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(shell pipelines. For example, in our systems all user input is filtered through a pipeline thread) justify
grestore
92.345 368.5769 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(that preprocesses events and puts them into another queue, rather than have each reader thread) justify
grestore
92.345 356.532 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(preprocess on demand. Neither approach necessarily provides a more efficient system, but the) justify
grestore
92.345 344.487 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(pipeline is conceptually simpler: tokens just appear in a queue. The programmer needs to) justify
grestore
92.345 332.442 moveto
font0 setfont
(understand less about the pieces being connected.) show
92.345 314.3745 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(One interesting kind of pump is the slack process. A slack process explicitly adds latency to a) justify
grestore
92.345 302.3294 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(pipeline in the hope of reducing the total amount of work done, either by merging input or) justify
grestore
92.345 290.2844 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(replacing earlier data with later data before placing it on its output. Slack processes are useful) justify
grestore
92.345 278.2394 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(when the downstream consumer of the data incurs high per-transaction costs. The buffer thread) justify
grestore
92.345 266.1944 moveto
font0 setfont
(discussed in Sections 3.2 and 5.2 is an example of a slack process. ) show
82.3075 242.1045 moveto
font1 setfont
(4.3 Sleepers and oneshots) show
92.345 218.0145 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Sleepers are processes that repeatedly wait for a triggering event and then execute. Often the) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(triggering event is a timeout. Examples include: call this procedure in K seconds; blink the) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(cursor in M milliseconds; check for network connection timeout every T seconds. Other common) justify
grestore
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gsave
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(events are external input and service callbacks from other activities. For instance, our systems) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
currentpoint /undery exch def /underx exch def
( ) show
1.0 setlinewidth
currentpoint currentpoint pop
undery 1.2 sub dup underx exch
vec moveto
92.345 122.8592 moveto
gsave
font10 setfont
opsbef 0 {font10 setfont 0.0 4.015 rmoveto} put
(1) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 1 {0.0 -4.015 rmoveto font0 setfont} put
(We use the term ) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 2 {font9 setfont} put
(pump) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 3 {font0 setfont} put
(, rather than the more common ) 3 buf
opsaft 3 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 4 {font9 setfont} put
(filter) 4 buf
opsaft 4 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 5 {font0 setfont} put
( because data transformation, ala) 5 buf
opsaft 5 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 110.8142 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(filters, is just one of the things that pumps can do. In general, pumps control both the data) justify
grestore
92.345 98.76915 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(transformation and the timing of the transfer. We also like the connotation of an active entity) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(conveyed by ) show
font9 setfont
(pump) show
font0 setfont
( as opposed to the passivity of ) show
font9 setfont
(filter) show
font0 setfont
(.) show
grestore
grestore
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gsave
2834.646 2834.646 scale
gsave
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font0 setfont
552.9706 746.79 moveto
(13) show
92.345 713.8666 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(use callbacks from the garbage collector to finalize objects and callbacks from the filesystem) justify
grestore
92.345 701.8220 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(when files change state. These callbacks are removed from time-critical paths in the garbage) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(collector and filesystem by putting an event in a work queue serviced by a sleeper thread. The) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(client's code is then called from the sleeper.) show
92.345 658.2881 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Sleepers frequently do very little work before sleeping again. For instance, various cache) justify
grestore
92.345 646.2429 moveto
font0 setfont
(managers in our systems simply throw away aged values in a cache then go back to sleep.) show
92.345 626.7988 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Another kind of sleeper is the garbage collector's background thread which cleans pages dirtied) justify
grestore
92.345 614.7539 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(by other threads. If it gets too far behind in its work it could cause virtual memory thrashing by) justify
grestore
92.345 602.709 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(cleaning pages no longer resident in physical memory. Its rate of awakening must depend on the) justify
grestore
92.345 590.6639 moveto
font0 setfont
(amount of page dirtying which depends on the workload of all the other threads in the system.) show
92.345 571.2198 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(OneShots are sleeper processes that sleep for a while, run and then go away. This paradigm is) justify
grestore
92.345 559.175 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(used repeatedly in Cedar, for example, to implement guarded buttons of several kinds. \050A) justify
grestore
92.345 547.1299 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(guarded button must be pressed twice, in close, but not too close succession. They usually look) justify
grestore
92.345 535.0847 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(like \042) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
opsbef 1 {
currentpoint /undery exch def /underx exch def
font0 setfont} put
(Button) 1 buf
opsaft 1 {
1.0 setlinewidth
currentpoint currentpoint pop
undery -2.3 sub dup underx exch
vec moveto} put
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
(\042 on the screen.\051 After a one-shot is forked it sleeps for an arming period that must) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 523.04 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(pass before a second click is acceptable. Then it changes the button appearance from \042) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
opsbef 1 {
currentpoint /undery exch def /underx exch def
font0 setfont} put
(Button) 1 buf
opsaft 1 {
1.0 setlinewidth
currentpoint currentpoint pop
undery -2.3 sub dup underx exch
vec moveto} put
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
(\042 to) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 510.9948 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(\042Button\042 and sleeps a second time. During this period a second click invokes a procedure) justify
grestore
92.345 498.95 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(associated with the button, but if the timeout expires without a second click, the one-shot just) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(repaints the guarded button.) show
82.3075 460.9794 moveto
font1 setfont
(4.4 Deadlock avoiders) show
92.345 435.054 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(Cedar often uses ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(FORK) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( to avoid violating lock order constraints. The window manager makes) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 423.009 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(heavy use of this paradigm. For example, after adjusting the boundary between two windows the) justify
grestore
92.345 410.9639 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(contents of the windows must be repainted. The boundary-moving thread forks new threads to do) justify
grestore
92.345 398.9189 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(the repainting because it already holds some, but not all of the locks needed for the repainting.) justify
grestore
92.345 386.8739 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Acquiring these locks would require unwinding the adjusting process far enough to release locks) justify
grestore
92.345 374.829 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(that would violate locking order, then reacquiring all the necessary locks in the right order. It is) justify
grestore
92.345 362.7839 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(far simpler to fork the painting processes, unwind the adjuster completely and let the painters) justify
grestore
92.345 350.7389 moveto
font0 setfont
(acquire the locks that they need in separate processes.) show
92.345 331.2949 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Another case of deadlock avoidance is forking the callbacks from a service module to a client) justify
grestore
92.345 319.2498 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(module. Forking permits the service thread to proceed, eventually releasing locks it holds that) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(will be needed by the client. The fork also insulates the service from things that may go wrong in) justify
grestore
92.345 295.1597 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(the client callback. For instance, Cedar permits clients to register callback procedures with the) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(garbage collector that are called to finalize \050clean up\051 data structures. The finalization service) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(thread forks each callback.) show
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font1 setfont
(4.5 Task rejuvenation) show
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gsave
font0 setfont
(Sometimes threads get into bad states, such as arise from uncaught exceptions or stack overflow,) justify
grestore
92.345 207.1739 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(from which recovery is impossible within the thread itself. In many cases, however, cleanup and) justify
grestore
92.345 195.1289 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(recovery is possible if a new \042task rejuvenation\042 thread is forked. For uncaught errors, an) justify
grestore
92.345 183.084 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(exception handler may simply fork a new copy of the service. For stack overflow, a new thread is) justify
grestore
92.345 171.0389 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(forked to report the stack overflow. Using threads for task rejuvenation can be tricky and is a bit) justify
grestore
92.345 158.9939 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(counter-intuitive \050This thread is in trouble. Ok let's make ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(two ) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
(of them!\051 However, it is a) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 146.949 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(paradigm that adds significantly to the robustness of our systems and its use is growing. A recent) justify
grestore
92.345 134.904 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(addition is a task-rejuvenating ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(FORK ) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
(that was added to the input event dispatcher in Cedar. The) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
92.345 122.859 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(dispatcher makes unforked callbacks to client procedures because \050a\051 this code is on the critical) justify
grestore
92.345 110.814 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(path for user-visible performance and \050b\051 most callbacks are very short \050e.g. enqueue an event\051) justify
grestore
92.345 98.76895 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(and so a fork overhead would be significant. But not forking makes the dispatcher vulnerable to) justify
grestore
92.345 86.72391 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(uncaught runtime errors that occur in the callbacks. Using task rejuvenation, the new copy of the) justify
grestore
grestore
grestore
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gsave
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font0 setfont
552.759 746.79 moveto
(14) show
92.345 713.8666 moveto
font0 setfont
(dispatcher keeps running.) show
92.345 693.9067 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Task rejuvenation is a controversial paradigm. It's ability to mask underlying design problems) justify
grestore
92.345 681.8615 moveto
font0 setfont
(suggests that it be used with caution.) show
82.3075 655.248 moveto
font1 setfont
(4.6 Serializers) show
92.345 628.6342 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(A serializer is a queue and a thread that processes the work on the queue. The queue acts as a) justify
grestore
92.345 616.5893 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(point of serialization in the system. The primary example is in the window system where input) justify
grestore
92.345 604.5443 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(events can arrive from a number of different sources. They are handled by a single thread in order) justify
grestore
92.345 592.4993 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(to preserve their ordering. This same paradigm is present in most other window systems and in) justify
grestore
92.345 580.4545 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(many cases it is the only paradigm. In the Macintosh, Microsoft Windows, and X programming) justify
grestore
92.345 568.4095 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(models, for example, each application runs in a serializer thread that pulls events from a queue) justify
grestore
92.345 556.3644 moveto
font0 setfont
(associated with the application's window.) show
82.3075 529.7507 moveto
font1 setfont
(4.7 Concurrency exploiters) show
92.345 503.137 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Concurrency exploiters are threads created specifically to make use of multiple processors. They) justify
grestore
92.345 491.092 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(tend to be very problem-specific in their details. Since our systems have only relatively recently) justify
grestore
92.345 479.0468 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(begun to run on multiprocessors we were not surprised to find very few concurrency exploiters in) justify
grestore
92.345 467.0019 moveto
font0 setfont
(them. ) show
82.3075 440.3882 moveto
font1 setfont
(4.8 Encapsulated forks) show
92.345 413.7745 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(One way that our systems promote use of common thread paradigms is by providing modules that) justify
grestore
92.345 401.7293 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(encapsulate the paradigms. This section describes three such packages used frequently in our) justify
grestore
92.345 389.6844 moveto
font0 setfont
(systems. ) show
92.345 363.0707 moveto
font9 setfont
(DelayedFork and PeriodicalFork) show
102.3825 336.4572 moveto
/colwidth 436.8696 def
gsave
font0 setfont
(DelayedFork expresses the paradigm of a one-shot. It calls a procedure at some time in the) justify
grestore
102.3825 324.412 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(future. Although one-shots are common in our system, DelayedFork is only used in our) justify
grestore
102.3825 312.3671 moveto
font0 setfont
(window systems. \050Its limited use might be because it appeared only recently.\051) show
102.3825 292.4068 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(PeriodicalFork is simply a DelayedFork that repeats over and over again at fixed intervals. It) justify
grestore
102.3825 280.3617 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(encapsulates the sleeper paradigm where the wakeups are prompted solely by the passage of) justify
grestore
102.3825 268.3167 moveto
font0 setfont
(time. ) show
92.345 241.703 moveto
font9 setfont
(MBQueue) show
102.3825 215.0893 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(The module MBQueue \050the name means Menu/Button Queue\051 encapsulates the serializer) justify
grestore
102.3825 203.0442 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(paradigm in our systems. MBQueue creates a queue as a serialization context and a thread to) justify
grestore
102.3825 190.9993 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(process it. Mouse clicks and key strokes cause procedures to be enqueued for the context: the) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(thread then calls the procedures in the order received. ) show
102.3825 158.994 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(We consider a queue together with a thread processing it an important building block of user) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(interfaces. This is borne out by the fact that our system actually contains several minor) justify
grestore
102.3825 134.904 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(variations of MBQueue. Why is there not a more general package? It seems that each instance) justify
grestore
102.3825 122.859 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(adds serialization to a specific interface already familiar to the programmer. Furthermore, the) justify
grestore
102.3825 110.814 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(serialization is often on a critical interactive performance path. Keeping a familiar interface to) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(the programmer and reducing latency cause new variations to be preferred over a single) justify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(generic implementation.) show
grestore
grestore
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showpage
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gsave
2834.646 2834.646 scale
gsave
0.0254 dup matrix scale concat
0.013837 dup matrix scale concat
font0 setfont
552.9706 746.79 moveto
(15) show
92.345 713.8666 moveto
font9 setfont
(Miscellaneous) show
102.3825 689.7769 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(Many modules that do callbacks offer a ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(fork) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( boolean parameter in their interface, indicating) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
102.3825 677.7319 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(whether or not the called-back procedure is to be called directly or in a forked thread. The) justify
grestore
102.3825 665.6869 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(default is almost always ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(TRUE) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
(, meaning the callback will be forked. Unforked callbacks are) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
102.3825 653.6418 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(usually intended for experts, because they make future execution of the calling thread within) justify
grestore
102.3825 641.5968 moveto
font0 setfont
(the module dependent on successful completion of the client callback. ) show
82.3075 617.507 moveto
font1 setfont
(4.9 Paradigm summary) show
92.345 593.417 moveto
/colwidth 446.907 def
gsave
font0 setfont
(Table 4 summarizes the absolute and relative frequencies of the paradigms in our systems. Note) justify
grestore
92.345 581.372 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(that in keeping with our emphasis on using threads as program structuring devices this is a static) justify
grestore
92.345 569.327 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(count. \050Threads may be counted in more than one category because they change their behavior.\051) justify
grestore
92.345 557.282 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Some threads seem not to fit easily into any category. These are captured in the \042Unknown or) justify
grestore
92.345 545.2368 moveto
font0 setfont
(other\042 entries.) show
216.2592 527.1695 moveto
font1 setfont
(Table 4. Static Counts, Cedar and GVX) show
92.345 509.102 moveto
font0 setfont
44.60656 0.0 rmoveto
font1 setfont
44.60656 0.0 rmoveto
44.60656 0.0 rmoveto
( Cedar ) show
44.60253 0.0 rmoveto
( GVX ) show
font0 setfont
8.919297 0.0 rmoveto
92.345 491.0344 moveto
font1 setfont
(Defer work) show
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( 108) show
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( 31%) show
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( 77) show
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( 33%) show
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(Pumps) show
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( General pumps) show
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( ) show
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( 48) show
28.99225 0.0 rmoveto
( 14%) show
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( 33) show
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(14%) show
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( Slack processes) show
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( ) show
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( 7) show
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( 2%) show
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( 2) show
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( 1%) show
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(Sleepers) show
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( 67) show
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( 19%) show
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( 15) show
26.7619 0.0 rmoveto
( 6%) show
26.20485 0.0 rmoveto
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(Oneshots) show
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( 25) show
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( 7%) show
19.51385 0.0 rmoveto
( 11) show
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( 5%) show
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(Deadlock avoidance) show
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( 35) show
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( 10%) show
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( 6) show
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( 3%) show
26.20485 0.0 rmoveto
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(Task rejuvenation) show
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( 11) show
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( 3%) show
21.74419 0.0 rmoveto
( 0) show
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( 0%) show
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(Serializers) show
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( 5) show
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( 1%) show
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( 4%) show
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(Concurrency exploiters) show
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( 3) show
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( 1%) show
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( 0) show
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( 78) show
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(33%) show
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(Our categories seem to apply well to other systems. For instance, Lampson and Redell describe) justify
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(critical timing constraints\051 and work deferrer paradigms. For the most part these require little) justify
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(literature and in our experience for using concurrency exploiters in interactive systems. The) justify
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(In this diagram YieldButNotToMe succeeds more often in) justify
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(These black lines mark the ends) justify
grestore
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/colwidth 146.731 def
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(of PCR scheduler quanta where) justify
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/colwidth 136.9458 def
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(YieldButNotToMe terminates) justify
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(and the higher priority buffer) justify
grestore
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(thread runs again.) show
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gsave
font16 setfont
(Note: Our data collector reports \042unknown state\042 for processes) justify
grestore
-13.62074 413.9468 moveto
gsave
font16 setfont
(at the beginning of a capture interval. For clarity we added by) justify
grestore
-13.62074 403.9094 moveto
/colwidth 216.6487 def
gsave
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(hand the state color in three places: the first two red \042running\042) justify
grestore
-13.62074 393.8718 moveto
font16 setfont
(regions in ) show
/Times-Bold findfont 8.029999 scalefont
/font17 exch def
font17 setfont
(VP) show
font16 setfont
(, and the pink \042ready-to-run\042 region in ) show
font17 setfont
(image) show
font16 setfont
(.) show
grestore
grestore
gsave
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(improvement from YieldButNotToMe) show
grestore
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10.0 dup matrix scale 90.0 matrix rotate -132.396 162.711 matrix translate matrix concatmatrix matrix concatmatrix concat
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(\050scale: 15mm = approx. 10 milliseconds\051) show
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grestore
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grestore
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% end page 17
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(18) show
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(We fixed the immediate problem by creating a new yield primitive, called YieldButNotToMe) justify
grestore
92.345 701.8220 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(which gives the processor to the highest priority ready thread ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font9 setfont
opsbef 1 {font9 setfont} put
(other than its caller,) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( if such a) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
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(thread exists. Most of the time the image thread is the thread favored with the extra cycles and) justify
grestore
92.345 677.7321 moveto
gsave
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(there is a big improvement in the system's perceived performance. However, the semantic) justify
grestore
92.345 665.687 moveto
gsave
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(compromise entailed in YieldButNotToMe and the uncertainty that the additional cycles will go) justify
grestore
92.345 653.642 moveto
font0 setfont
(to the correct thread suggest that the final solution to these problems still eludes us. ) show
92.345 633.9571 moveto
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font0 setfont
(The improved result when the buffer thread uses YieldButNotToMe can be seen in Figure 2.) justify
grestore
92.345 621.9123 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Notice that now when the image thread notifies the buffer thread, the buffer thread usually runs) justify
grestore
92.345 609.8671 moveto
gsave
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(for only a moment before yielding back to the image thread. The result is that the X server runs) justify
grestore
92.345 597.8222 moveto
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(only five times in the same time interval. The fewer switches to the X server make the buffer) justify
grestore
92.345 585.7772 moveto
gsave
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(thread more effective at doing rectangle combination, there is less time spent in thread switching) justify
grestore
92.345 573.7321 moveto
gsave
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(and the image thread gets much more processor resource over the interval. The user experiences) justify
grestore
92.345 561.6872 moveto
font0 setfont
(about a three-fold performance improvement.) show
92.345 542.0022 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Finally, even beyond the problems encountered with priorities in managing a pipeline, we found) justify
grestore
92.345 529.9574 moveto
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(priorities to be problematic. Birrell describes a stable priority inversion in which a high priority) justify
grestore
92.345 517.9123 moveto
gsave
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(thread waits on a lock held by a low priority thread that is prevented from running by a middle-) justify
grestore
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(priority cpu hog [Birrell91, pp. 99-100]. Like Birrell, we chose not to incur the implementation) justify
grestore
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(overhead of providing priority inheritance from blocked threads to threads holding locks. \050Notice) justify
grestore
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(that the problem occurs for abstract resources such as the condition associated with a CV as well) justify
grestore
92.345 469.7321 moveto
gsave
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(as for real resources such as locks: the thread primitives have little hope of automatically) justify
grestore
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gsave
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(adjusting thread priority in such situations.\051 The problem is not hypothetical: we experienced) justify
grestore
92.345 445.6422 moveto
gsave
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(enough real problems with priority inversions that we found it necessary to put the following two) justify
grestore
92.345 433.5972 moveto
gsave
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(workarounds into our systems. First, for one particular kind of lock in the system, PCR does) justify
grestore
92.345 421.5523 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(donate cycles from a blocked thread to the thread that is blocking it. This is done only for the per-) justify
grestore
92.345 409.5072 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(monitor metalock that locks each monitor's queue of waiting threads. It is not done for monitors) justify
grestore
92.345 397.4622 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(themselves, where we don't know how to implement it efficiently. Second, PCR utilizes a high-) justify
grestore
92.345 385.4172 moveto
gsave
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(priority sleeper thread \050which we call the SystemDaemon\051 that regularly wakes up and donates,) justify
grestore
92.345 373.3721 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(using a directed yield, a small timeslice to another thread chosen at random. In this way we) justify
grestore
92.345 361.3272 moveto
font0 setfont
(ensure that all ready threads get some cpu resource, regardless of their priorities.) show
82.3075 335.0806 moveto
font1 setfont
(5.3 Common mistakes ) show
92.345 308.8339 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Our dynamic and static inspections of old code revealed occasional correctness and performance) justify
grestore
92.345 296.7889 moveto
font0 setfont
(problems caused by improper thread usage. Two questionable practices stood out. ) show
92.345 277.1039 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(First, we saw many instances of ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(WAIT) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( code that did not recheck the predicate associated with the) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(condition variable. Recall that proper use of ) show
font10 setfont
(WAIT) show
font0 setfont
( when using Mesa monitors is ) show
102.3825 245.3739 moveto
font10 setfont
(WHILE) show
font0 setfont
( ) show
font10 setfont
(NOT) show
font0 setfont
( \050) show
font10 setfont
(OK) show
font0 setfont
( to proceed\051 ) show
font10 setfont
(DO) show
font0 setfont
( ) show
font10 setfont
(WAIT) show
font0 setfont
( cv ) show
font10 setfont
(END) show
font0 setfont
( ) show
92.345 225.6889 moveto
font0 setfont
(not the ) show
102.3825 206.004 moveto
font10 setfont
(IF) show
font0 setfont
( ) show
font10 setfont
(NOT ) show
font0 setfont
(\050) show
font10 setfont
(OK) show
font0 setfont
( to proceed\051 ) show
font10 setfont
(THEN) show
font0 setfont
( ) show
font10 setfont
(WAIT) show
font0 setfont
( cv ) show
92.345 186.319 moveto
font0 setfont
(which would be appropriate with Hoare's original monitors.) show
92.345 166.6341 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(The ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(IF) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
(-based approach will work in Mesa with sufficient constraints on the number and behavior) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(of the threads using the monitor, but its use cannot be recommended. The practice has been a) justify
grestore
92.345 142.5441 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(continuing source of bugs as programs are modified and the correctness conditions become) justify
grestore
92.345 130.4991 moveto
font0 setfont
(untrue. ) show
92.345 110.8141 moveto
gsave
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opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(Second, there were cases where timeouts had been introduced to compensate for missing ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(NOTIFYs) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
(\050bugs\051, instead of fixing the underlying problem. The problem with this is that the system can) justify
grestore
92.345 86.72413 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(become timeout driven--it apparently works correctly but slowly. Debugging the poor) justify
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(19) show
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gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(performance is often harder than figuring out why a system has stopped due to a missing ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(NOTIFY) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
(.) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
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font0 setfont
(Of course, legitimate timeouts can mask an omitted ) show
font10 setfont
(NOTIFY) show
font0 setfont
( as well. ) show
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font1 setfont
(5.4 When a fork fails) show
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(Sometimes an attempt to fork may fail for lack of resources. As with many other resource) justify
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gsave
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(allocation failures it's difficult to plan a response. Earlier versions of the systems would raise an) justify
grestore
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gsave
font0 setfont
opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(error when a ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
font10 setfont
opsbef 1 {font10 setfont} put
(FORK) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
font0 setfont
opsbef 2 {font0 setfont} put
( failed: the standard programming practice was to catch the error and to try to) 2 buf
opsaft 2 null put
mixedjustify
grestore
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(recover, but good recovery schemes seem never to have been worked out. The resulting code) justify
grestore
92.345 583.4687 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(seems overly complex to no good end: the machinery for catching the error is always set up even) justify
grestore
92.345 571.4237 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(though once an error is caught nobody really knows what to do about it. Memory allocation) justify
grestore
92.345 559.3788 moveto
font0 setfont
(failures present similar problems.) show
92.345 540.2407 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Our more recent implementations simply wait in the fork implementation for more resources to) justify
grestore
92.345 528.1957 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(become available, but the behaviors seen by the user, such as long delays in response or even) justify
grestore
92.345 516.1507 moveto
font0 setfont
(complete unresponsiveness, go unexplained. ) show
92.345 497.0125 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(A number of techniques may be adopted to avoid running out of resources: unfortunately, the) justify
grestore
92.345 484.9674 moveto
gsave
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(better we succeed at that, the less experience we gain with techniques for appropriately) justify
grestore
92.345 472.9224 moveto
font0 setfont
(recovering from the situation. ) show
font10 setfont
( ) show
font0 setfont
( ) show
82.3075 447.4047 moveto
font1 setfont
(5.5 On robustness in a changing environment) show
92.345 421.8873 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Two final comments on the archeology of thread-related bugs. First, we found many instances of) justify
grestore
92.345 409.8424 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(timeouts and pauses with ridiculous values. These values presumably were chosen with some) justify
grestore
92.345 397.7973 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(particular now-obsolete processor speed or network architecture in mind. For user interface-) justify
grestore
92.345 385.7524 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(related timeouts, values based on wall-clock time are appropriate, but timeouts related to) justify
grestore
92.345 373.7073 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(processor speeds, or more insidiously, to expected network server response times, are more) justify
grestore
92.345 361.6624 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(difficult to specify simply for all time. This may be an area of future research. For instance,) justify
grestore
92.345 349.6172 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(dynamically tuning application timeout values based on end-to-end system performance may be) justify
grestore
92.345 337.5723 moveto
font0 setfont
(a workable solution.) show
92.345 318.4342 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Second, we saw several places where the correctness of threaded code depended on strong memory) justify
grestore
92.345 306.3892 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(ordering, an assumption no longer true in some modern multiprocessors with weakly ordered) justify
grestore
92.345 294.3443 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(memory [Frailong93][Sites93]. The monitor implementation for weak ordering can use memory) justify
grestore
92.345 282.299 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(barrier instructions to ensure that all monitor-protected data access is consistent, but other uses) justify
grestore
92.345 270.2541 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(that would be correct with strong ordering will not work. As a simple example, imagine a thread) justify
grestore
92.345 258.2091 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(that once a minute constructs a record of time-date values and stores a pointer to that record into) justify
grestore
92.345 246.1642 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(a global variable. Under the assumptions of strong ordering and atomic write of the pointer) justify
grestore
92.345 234.119 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(value, this is safe. Under weak ordering, readers of the global variable can follow a pointer to a) justify
grestore
92.345 222.074 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(record that has not yet had its fields filled in. As another example, Birrell offers a performance) justify
grestore
92.345 210.0291 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(hint for calling an intialization routine exactly once [Birrell91, p. 97]. Under weak ordering, a) justify
grestore
92.345 197.9841 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(thread can both believe that the initializer has already been called, but not yet be able to see the) justify
grestore
92.345 185.9391 moveto
font0 setfont
(initialized data.) show
82.3075 160.4216 moveto
font1 setfont
(5.6 Some contrasting experiences: multi-threading and X windows) show
92.345 134.9041 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(The usual, single-threaded client interface to an X server is through Xlib, a library that) justify
grestore
92.345 122.8591 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(translates an X client's procedural interface into the message-oriented interface of the X server.) justify
grestore
92.345 110.8141 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(Xlib does the required translation and manages the I/O connection to the server, both for reading) justify
grestore
92.345 98.76906 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(events and writing commands. We studied two approaches to using X windows from a multi-) justify
grestore
92.345 86.72406 moveto
gsave
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(threaded client. One approach uses Xlib, modified only to make it thread-safe [Schmitmann93].) justify
grestore
grestore
grestore
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gsave
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font0 setfont
552.9706 746.79 moveto
(20) show
92.345 713.8666 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(The other approach uses Xl, an X client library designed from scratch with multi-threading in) justify
grestore
92.345 701.8220 moveto
font0 setfont
(mind [Jacobi92]. ) show
92.345 681.7325 moveto
gsave
font0 setfont
(A major difference between the two approaches concerns management of the I/O connection to the) justify
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gsave
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(server. Xl introduced a new serializing thread that was associated with the I/O connection. The) justify
grestore
92.345 657.6429 moveto
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(job of this thread was solely to read from the I/O connection and dispatch events to waiting) justify
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92.345 645.5976 moveto
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(threads. In contrast, the ported library allowed any client thread to do the read and a monitor) justify
grestore
92.345 633.5526 moveto
gsave
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(lock on the library provided serialization. There were two problems with this: priority inversion) justify
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(and honoring the clients' timeout parameter on the GetEvent routine. When a client thread) justify
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(blocks on the read call it holds the library mutex. A priority inversion could occur if the thread) justify
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(were preempted. Furthermore, it is not possible for other threads to timeout on their attempt to) justify
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(obtain the library mutex. Therefore, each read had to be done with a short timeout after which) justify
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(the mutex was released, allowing other threads to continue. In contrast, with the introduction of) justify
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(a reading thread, the client timeout is handled perfectly by the condition variable timeout) justify
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(mechanism and priority inversion can only occur during the short time period when a low-) justify
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(priority thread checks to see if there are events on the input queue.) show
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(A second benefit of introducing this thread concerns interaction between output requests and) justify
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(input events. The X specification requires that the output queue be flushed whenever a read is) justify
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(done on the input stream. This is done to ensure that any commands that might trigger a) justify
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(response are delivered to the server before the client waits on the reply. The ported library) justify
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(retained this behavior, but the short timeout on the read operations \050to handle the problem) justify
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(described above\051 caused an excessive number of output flushes, defeating the throughput gains of) justify
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(batching requests. With the introduction of a reading thread, however, there is no need to couple) justify
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(the input and output together. The reading thread can block indefinitely and other mechanisms) justify
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(such as an explicit flush by clients or a periodic timeout by a maintenance thread ensure that) justify
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(output gets flushed in a timely manner.) show
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(Another difference in the two approaches is the introduction of an extra thread for the batching of) justify
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(graphics requests. Both systems do batching on a higher level to eliminate unnecessary X) justify
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(requests. Xl uses the slack process mentioned previously. It makes the connection to the server) justify
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(asynchronous in order to improve throughput, especially when performing many graphics) justify
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(operations. The Xlib port uses external knowledge when the painting is finished to trigger a) justify
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(flush of the batched requests. This limits asynchronous graphics operations and leads to a few) justify
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(superfluous flushes. ) show
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(In summary, this example illustrates the benefit of introducing an additional thread to help) justify
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(manage concurrency and interactions with external I/O events. ) show
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(6. Issues in thread implementation ) show
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(6.1 Spurious lock conflicts) show
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(A spurious lock conflict occurs between a thread notifying a CV and the thread that it awakens.) justify
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(Birrell describes its occurence on a multiprocessor: the scheduler starts to run the notified thread) justify
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(on another processor while the notifying thread, still running on its processor, holds the) justify
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(associated monitor lock. The notifyee runs for a few microseconds and then blocks waiting for the) justify
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(monitor lock. The cost of this behavior is that of useless trips through the scheduler made by the) justify
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(notifyee's processor [Birrell91].) show
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(We observed this phenomenon in our micro-visualizations even on a uniprocessor, where it) justify
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(occurs when the waiting thread has higher priority than the notifying thread. Figure 3) justify
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(21) show
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(illustrates the behavior before and after the notify implementation was fixed to correct the) justify
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(behavior. Since the Mesa language does not allow condition variable notifies outside of monitor) justify
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opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(locks, Birrell's technique of moving the ) 0 buf
opsaft 0 null put
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(NOTIFY) 1 buf
opsaft 1 null put
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( out of the locked region is not applicable. In our) 2 buf
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mixedjustify
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(systems the fix \050defer processor rescheduling, but not the notification itself, until after monitor) justify
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opsbef 0 {font0 setfont} put
(exit\051 was made in the runtime implementation. The changed implementation of ) 0 buf
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(NOTIFY) 1 buf
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(the problem both in the case of interpriority notifications and on multiprocessors.) show
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(Low priority notifying thread) show
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(High priority waiting thread) show
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(Naive wakeup) show
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(Careful wakeup) show
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( A low priority thread notifying a high) show
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( Done carefully, only a single) show
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(Figure 3) show
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(6.2 Priorities) show
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(PCR approximates a strict priority scheduler, by which we mean that if a process of a given) justify
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(priority is currently scheduled to run on a processor, no process with higher priority is ready to) justify
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(run. As we have seen in Section 5.2, strict priority is not a desirable model on which to run our) justify
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(client code: a model that provides some cpu resource to all runnable threads has proven) justify
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(necessary to overcome stable priority inversions. Similarly, the YieldButNotToMe and) justify
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(SystemDaemon hacks, also described above, violate strict priority semantics yet have proven) justify
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(useful in making our system perform well. The SystemDaemon hack pushes the thread model a) justify
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(bit in the direction of proportional fair-share scheduling \050threads at each priority progress at a) justify
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(rate proportional to a function of the current distribution of threads among priorities\051, a model) justify
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(intuitively better suited to controlling long-term average behavior than to controlling moment-) justify
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(by-moment processor allocation to meet near-real-time requirements. ) show
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(We do not regard this as a satisfactory state of affairs. These implementation hacks mean that) justify
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(the thread model is incompletely specified with respect to priorities, adversely affecting our) justify
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(ability to reason about existing code and to provide guidance for engineering new code. Priority) justify
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(inversions and techniques for avoiding them are the subjects of considerable research in the) justify
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(realtime computing context [Sha90][Pilling91]. We believe that someone should investigate) justify
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(these techniques for interactive systems and report on the result. ) show
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(6.3 The effect of the time-slice quantum) show
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(Only after several months of study of Figure 2 did we realize something else it was showing us:) justify
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(the importance of the time-slice quantum. Figure 2 has been annotated by hand with a black) justify
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(stroke every 50 milliseconds denoting the end of the PCR time-slice. The end of a timeslice ends) justify
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(the effect of a YieldButNotToMe or a directed yield. In Figure 2 the lower priority image thread) justify
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(stops running and \050after a brief gap\051 the buffer thread again runs. \050The gap occurs when various) justify
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(threads, not shown, run briefly because they have timed out\051.) show
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(What we did not realize for a long time is that it is the 50 millisecond quantum that is clocking) justify
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(the sending of the X requests from the buffer thread. That is, the only reason this performs well) justify
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(is that the quantum is 50 milliseconds. For instance, if the quantum were 1 second, then X events) justify
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(would be buffered for one second before being sent and the user would observe very bursty screen) justify
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(painting. If the quantum were 1 millisecond, then the YieldButNotToMe would yield only very) justify
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(briefly and we would back to Figure 1 again.) show
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(22) show
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(Above we mentioned that it does not work to rewrite the buffer thread to sleep for a timed) justify
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(interval, instead of doing a yield. The reason is that the smallest sleep interval is the remainder) justify
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(of the scheduler quantum. Our 50 millisecond quantum is a little bit too long for snappy keyboard) justify
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(echoing and line drawing, both instances where immediate response is more important than the) justify
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(throughput improvement achieved by buffering. However, if the scheduler quantum were 20) justify
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(milliseconds, using a timeout instead of a yield in the buffer thread would work fine.) show
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(We conclude that the choice of scheduler quantum is not to be taken lightly in the design of) justify
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(interactive thread systems, since it can severely affect the performance of different, correct,) justify
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(multiprogramming algorithms.) show
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(7. Visualization tools ) show
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(An important tool in our study is the program that we use to examine the interactions between) justify
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(threads. The visualization system lets us see what threads are involved in performing a certain task) justify
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(and how they interact. Our visualization system consists of three major parts. The first two parts,) justify
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(HistorySpy and KTrace, gather information, while the third, ThreadsVis, displays the information.) show
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(HistorySpy collects detailed information about four kinds of events: thread creation \050fork\051, thread) justify
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(transition to blocked state \050blocked monitor entry, condition wait\051, thread transition to unblocked) justify
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(state \050monitor exit, notify and broadcast\051 and thread transition to running state \050chosen for) justify
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(execution by the thread scheduler\051. For each event the program counters on the call stack are) justify
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(gathered. The first few PCs in the callstacks are later used to identify the kind of transition and all) justify
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(the PCs are mapped to procedure names for inspection by the ThreadsVis user. The time overhead) justify
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(of HistorySpy is dominated by recording the call stacks, which takes about 45 microseconds per) justify
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(frame on a Sparcstation 2. Events have an average of 12 frames. A measured series of tasks took) justify
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(about 20% longer with HistorySpy turned on and gathering about 300 events/second. Note that) justify
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(events such as uncontended monitor entry and exit and notifies with no waiters do not cause) justify
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(transitions and are not recorded by HistorySpy. ) show
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(KTrace is a similar system for monitoring Unix kernel events. It consists of a SunOS kernel) justify
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(modified to put events into a large in-memory ring buffer and a user process that empties the) justify
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(buffer. KTrace events are transition to idle, user process execution, interrupts, trap entry and exit,) justify
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(page faults, internal kernel sleeps and system calls. Detailed information about each type of event) justify
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(is also gathered, such as which process, which interrupt, the event slept upon and so on. \050KTrace) justify
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(does not capture call stacks.\051 Tracing of different types of events can be turned on and off) justify
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(dynamically, to limit unnecessary overhead. A disabled trace point just costs a few instructions and) justify
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(an enabled trace point costs about 5 microseconds on a Sparcstation 2. This includes reading the) justify
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(microsecond hardware clock and adding a record to the circular trace buffer. The biggest source of) justify
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(overhead is the background job that runs periodically and copies the kernel's trace buffer to disk.) justify
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(Programs use from 2% to 3% more CPU time when tracing is turned on, but on a uniprocessor they) justify
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(run 10% to 11% slower in terms of elapsed time because they compete with the process that empties) justify
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(the trace buffer. The same measurement on a multiprocessor shows only the 2-3% slowdown as) justify
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(expected.) show
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(The ThreadsVis program automatically converts the data from KTrace and HistorySpy into an) justify
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(interactive graphical form. Using a graphical editor with embedded buttons [Pier88][Bier92], the) justify
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(picture is easily panned, zoomed, or edited. Any item in the picture can be clicked to pop up) justify
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(additional information, including the callstacks for thread events. There are obvious advantages to) justify
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(viewing the trace data graphically and interactively, but a complete discussion of thread) justify
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(visualization techniques is beyond the scope of this paper. \050The reader interested in parallel) justify
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(visualization systems might start with the references in [Halstead90].\051) show
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(23) show
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(The PCRTrace package, used in gathering data for the statistics for Section 3.1, is a PCR) justify
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(instrumented to record events like thread switches, thread preemptions, IO operations performed,) justify
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(contended and uncontended monitor entry, etc. Events are recorded in an in-memory trace buffer) justify
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(and analyzed off-line. ) show
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(8. Suggestions for future work) show
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(Two areas stand out as needing further work. First, micro-visualization of threads is very) justify
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(compute and memory intensive. We were not satisfied with either the performance or the user) justify
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(interface of our visualization tools, even when we ran them on 50 MIP multiprocessor RISC) justify
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(machines. We had two persistent user interface problems: managing the huge number of events in) justify
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(even a few seconds of visualization \050our figures here were drastically cut down for purposes of) justify
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(presentation\051; and better relating the visualized events to what occured during event capture. ) show
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(Second, we believe that work from the real-time scheduling community must be explored in the) justify
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(context of large, interactive systems. Both strict priority scheduling and fair-share priority) justify
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(scheduling seem to complicate rather than ease the programming of highly reactive systems.) show
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(9. Conclusions ) show
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(We have analyzed two interactive computing systems that make heavy use of light-weight threads) justify
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(and have been in daily use for many years by many people. The model of threads both these) justify
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(systems use is one based on preemptable threads that use monitors and condition variables to) justify
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(control thread interactions. Both systems run on top of the Portable Common Runtime, which) justify
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(provides preemptable user-level threads based on a strict priority-based scheduling model.) show
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(Our analysis has focused on how people use threads for program structuring rather than for) justify
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(achieving multiprocessor performance. As such, we have focused more on a static analysis of) justify
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(program code, coupled with an analysis of thread micro-behavior, than on macroscopic thread) justify
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(runtime statistics.) show
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(These systems exemplify some paradigms that may be useful to the thread programmer who is) justify
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(ready for more advanced thread uses, such as slack processes, serializers, deadlock avoiders and) justify
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(task rejuvenators.) show
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(These systems also show that even very experienced communities may struggle at times to use) justify
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(threads well. Some thread paradigms using monitor mechanisms are easy for programmers to use;) justify
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(others, such as slack processes and priorities, challenge both application programmers and thread) justify
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(One of our major conclusions is a suggestion for future work in this area: there is still much to be) justify
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(learned from a careful analysis of large systems. The more unusual paradigms described in this) justify
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(paper, such as task rejuvenation and deadlock avoidance, arose from a relatively small community) justify
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(over a small number of years. There are likely other innovative uses of threads waiting to be) justify
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(discovered. ) show
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(Reading code and microscopic visualization taught us new things about systems we had created and) justify
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(used over a ten year period. Even after a year of looking at the same 100 millisecond pictures we) justify
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(are seeing new things in them. To understand systems it is not enough to describe how things) justify
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(should be; one also needs to know how they are. ) show
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(24) show
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(Acknowledgements) show
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(This work would not have been possible without the efforts of the hundreds of Cedar and GVX) justify
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(programmers who created these systems. Alan Demers created the PCR thread package and) justify
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(participated in hours of discussions regarding thread primitives and scheduling. John Corwin and) justify
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(Chris Uhler assisted us in building and using instrumented versions of GVX.) show
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(This work was supported by Xerox. Portions were also paid for by ARPA under contract) justify
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(DABT63-91-C-0027.) show
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(Bibliography) show
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([Accetta86] Accetta, R. Baron, W. Bolosky, D. Golub, R. Rashid, A. Tevanian, M. Young, ``Mach: A) justify
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(0: Idler thread created by PCR to occupy its scheduler when nothing else is runnable.) show
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(1: Idler thread created by PCR to occupy its scheduler when nothing else is runnable.) show
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(2: Unknown sleeper thread.) show
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(3: Feedback window typescript thread.) show
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(4: Garbage collection daemon.) show
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(5: System daemon. Provides a proportional scheduling capability.) show
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(6: Finalization manager. Forks threads to handle finalization tasks when necessary.) show
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(7: Waits for Unix signals and feeds them to Cedar.) show
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(8: PFS file system cache sweeping thread.) show
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(9: Cache sweeper for Cedar's \050distributed\051 naming facilities.) show
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(10: SunRPCAuth housekeeping thread.) show
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(11: Serializer thread for window painting operations.) show
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(12: Serializer thread for window painting operations.) show
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(13: Serializer thread for window painting operations.) show
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(14: Caret blinking thread.) show
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(15: Serializer thread for window input events.) show
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(16: Serializer thread for window input events.) show
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(17: Serializer thread for window input events.) show
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font0 setfont
(18: Serializer thread for window input events.) show
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font0 setfont
(19: Manager thread for ForkOps package \050provides \042hot\042 threads for periodically executing ) show
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( and delayed execution tasks\051.) show
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(20: Manager thread for CommTimer package \050provides a timeout service\051.) show
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(21: Buffering thread for collecting bytes to be sent to the network.) show
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(22: SUN YP name cache sweeper thread.) show
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(23: Fake X server events generator \050for when the X server is quiescent\051.) show
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(24: GC cursor thread. Waits until the GC-happening cursor should be shown and does so.) show
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(25: Unknown sleeper thread.) show
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(26: Serializer thread for typescript painting operations.) show
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(27: Input serialization thread.) show
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(28: Input event-to-function matcher thread.) show
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(29: Popup menu thread. Waits for popup requests and executes them.) show
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(30: X server connection input events thread.) show
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(31: Buffered X server connection output thread.) show
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(32: ForkOps thread, waiting for a task to execute.) show
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(33: Unknown.) show
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(34: ForkOps thread, waiting for a task to execute.) show
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(35: Commander typescript \050equivalent to a Unix shell\051 thread.) show
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(36: Clock thread.) show
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(37: ForkOps thread, waiting for a task to execute.) show
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(GVX eternal thread descriptions) show
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font10 setfont
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(:) show
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82.3075 122.859 moveto
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(0: Idler thread created by PCR to occupy its scheduler when nothing else is runnable.) show
82.3075 110.814 moveto
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(1: PCR console reader thread.) show
82.3075 98.76898 moveto
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(2: System daemon.) show
82.3075 86.724 moveto
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(3: Finalization manager.) show
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552.9706 746.79 moveto
(27) show
82.3075 713.8666 moveto
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(4: GVX desktop events thread.) show
82.3075 701.8220 moveto
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(5: User abort thread. \050Only the System Daemon runs at higher priority.\051) show
82.3075 689.7769 moveto
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(6: Inactive session timeout thread.) show
82.3075 677.7321 moveto
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(7: Distributed sessions probe thread.) show
82.3075 665.687 moveto
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(8: Unknown.) show
82.3075 653.642 moveto
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(9: Display flusher thread.) show
82.3075 641.597 moveto
font0 setfont
(10: Network listener thread.) show
82.3075 629.552 moveto
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(11: Network listener thread.) show
82.3075 617.5073 moveto
font0 setfont
(12: Interrupt thread. \050Only the System Daemon runs at higher priority.\051) show
82.3075 605.4621 moveto
font0 setfont
(13: X server connection event reader thread.) show
82.3075 593.4171 moveto
font0 setfont
(14: X connection event matcher.) show
82.3075 581.372 moveto
font0 setfont
(15: X event dispatcher.) show
82.3075 569.3272 moveto
font0 setfont
(16: Background event handler.) show
82.3075 557.282 moveto
font0 setfont
(17: Input event-to-function matcher helper thread.) show
82.3075 545.2372 moveto
font0 setfont
(18: Input event-to-function matcher thread.) show
82.3075 533.1924 moveto
font0 setfont
(19: Unknown.) show
82.3075 521.147 moveto
font0 setfont
(20: Forked events manager thread.) show
82.3075 509.102 moveto
font0 setfont
(21: Free pages sweeper thread.) show
82.3075 497.0571 moveto
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(22: Cursor blinking thread.) show
72.26999 86.72421 moveto
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